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Research Article
Open Access

The Puzzle of Distribution

How Globalized Were Early Modern Apothecary Shops?

Emma Tomlins
History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals, May 2025, 66 (2) 134-179; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/hopp.66.2.134
Emma Tomlins
Emma Tomlins is a research assistant for the Historical Pharmacopeias project
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  • Figure 1.
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    Figure 1.

    Documentary Archaeology of Late Medieval Europe (DALME). “Inventory of Rostaing de Gréoux,” 1547, https://dalme.org/collections/global-pharmacopeias-workshop/records/d4c360b5-12c2-4f50-8e19-326d92839acb/1r/.

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    Figure 2.

    The beginning of the simples section in de Gréoux’s inventory. DALME, “Inventory of Rostaing de Gréoux,” 5r.

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    Figure 3.

    Early modern symbols for apothecary weights and measures. Zupko, “Medieval Apothecary Weights and Measures,” 59.

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    Figure 4.

    Geographic dispersion of the natural materials in Rostand de Greoux’s Inventory. Source: DALME, “Inventory of Rostaing de Gréoux.” https://dalme.org/collections/historical-pharmacopeias/records/d4c360b5-12c2-4f50-8e19-326d92839acb/288r/; Paula De Vos, “European Materia Medica in Historical Texts: Longevity of a Tradition and Implications for Future Use,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132, no. 1 (2010): 28–47; Robert Tallaksen, “John Ward’s Latin,” Folgerpedia, 2024, https://folgerpedia.folger.edu/John_Ward%27s_Latin#Alchemical_Symbols_and_Other_Abbreviations; Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, “Plants of the World Online,” https://powo.science.kew.org/; UMichigan, “Middle English Compendium,” Middle English Dictionary, 2023, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary.

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    Figure 5.

    Documentary Archaeology of Late Medieval Europe, “Inventory of the Boutique of Matheus Ruffi,” 1488, https://dalme.org/collections/global-pharmacopeias-workshop/records/2baa782e-0276-4452-b19e-23eb3491a9bf/5r/.

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    Figure 6.

    Documentary Archaeology of Late Medieval Europe, “Inventory of the Boutique of Steve Villa,” 1506, https://dalme.org/collections/global-pharmacopeias-workshop/records/69538b2c-3b66-4381-9205-eba3fd596e26/2r.

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    Figure 7.

    Documentary Archaeology of Late Medieval Europe, “Inventory of the Shop of Jacques Figurat,” 1616, https://dalme.org/collections/global-pharmacopeias-workshop/records/c417e3b5-ad6f-4fb5-8531-e3a71de94f47/58/.

Tables

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    Table 1.

    Average Weight of Natural Materials in de Gréoux’s Inventory

    Type of Natural MaterialWeight Average of TypeNatural MaterialEnglish NameWeight of Natural Material
    Waters2 lb ½Aqua rosarumRose water5 lb ½
    Aqua nenupharisWater lily water6 lb
    Syrups4 lb ½Syrupus de absintheAbsinth syrup7 lb
    Oximellis simplicisHoney vinegar syrup7 lb ½
    Oils2 lb 8 oncesOlei ruyteRue oil7 lb ¼
    Olei anetiDill oil6 lb
    Animal fats10 onces ½Axungie mureti1 lb 7 onces
    Axungie hyrcis1 lb
    Ointments4 lb ¼Unguentum albumOintment of olive oil, white wax, and white lead7 lb
    Unguentum martiatumSoldier’s ointment6 lb ½
    Unguentum baziliconBasilicum ointment6 lb ¼
    Plasters2 lb ¼Emplastrum dya chilon magnumPlaster containing juices of herbs3 lb ¼
    Emplastrum dyachilon communePlaster containing juices of common herbs3 lb ¼
    Emplastrum trya pharmaconPlaster composed of flour, water, and oil3 lb ¼
    Emplastrum de betonica3 lb ¾
    Preserves2 lb ½Conserve acetone3 lb ¾
    Corticis citriPreserve of citrus bark3 lb
    Opiates3 lbCassie cum meleCassia with honey6 lb ½
    Zinziber vertGreen ginger4 lb ¼
    Jams12 lb ½Yranges confidesOrange jam13 lb
    Roses confidesRose jam21 lb
    Pills1 onces ½Pilule de rhabarbaroRhubarb pills3 onces
    Troches10 drams ½Trociscorum de terra sigilataEarth from the island Lemnos made into a lozenge3 onces
    Cordial powders1 once 3 dramsPulvis dya rodon abbatisPowders containing roses3 onces
    Pulvis cimini4 oz
    Electuaries3 onces 1 dramDya carthamiA purgative containing safflower½ lb 2 onces
    Succre candiSugar candy½ lb 1 once
    Dya dragacantiMixture containing gum tragacanth1 lb
    Stones1 once ½Lapis saphirorumSaphire3 onces
    Lapis lincisLynx stone4 onces
    Colors1 lb 1 onceMini4 lb ½
    Machicot3 lb ½
    Roots½ lbPeonyPeony root1 lb
    Costi dulcisSweet costus root1 lb
    Seeds3 oncesCornu servi½ lb 3 onces (9 onces)
    NaturciNasturtium seeds½ lb (6 onces)
    Aluminis plume1 lb (12 onces)
    Simples5 lbMostardoMustard50 lb
    MielHoney128 lb
    Gredo102 lb
    Boli armeniaArmenian bole80 lb
    Semen liniFlax seeds37 lb
    CassonadeBrown sugar35 lb
    • Source: DALME, “Inventory of Rostaing de Gréoux,” 1547. https://dalme.org/collections/global-pharmacopeias-workshop/records/d4c360b5-12c2-4f50-8e19-326d92839acb/1r/.

  • Simples and Compounds Shared by the Inventory of Rostand de Gréoux

    Inventory of Mathieu Roux (Marseille, 1488)Lumen Apothecariorum (Italy, 1492)Inventory of Steve Villa (Aix-en-Provence, 1506)Inventory of Jacques Figurat (Carpentras, 1616)Medical Texts in De Vos, “EMM” (5th century BCE to 19th century CE)
    Galles de Romanye
    ceruseceruzeceruse
    agaricagaric gros
    myrabolanorum citrinorum, myrabolanorum emblicorum, myrabolanorum indorummyrabolanorum citrinorum, myrabolanorum emblicorum, myrabolanorum indorum, myrabolanorum chebulorummyrabolanorum citrinorummyrabolanorum
    coral blanc, coral rougecoral rougecoral rougecoral rouge, coral albicoral
    euphorbieuphorbieuphorbieuphorbi
    anacardianacardianacardi
    camphoretrochiscorum de camporacamphor
    reubarbereubarbereubarberhabarbari
    ligni aloesligni aloesligni aloeslingi aloeslingi aloes
    zedoariezedoariezedoariezedoariezedoarie
    aloes cabalin
    storacis rubeistoracis rubei
    coloquintidecoloquintidecoloquintidecoloquintide
    sanguinis draconissanguinis draconispulvis sanguinis draconissanguinis draconis
    gommi draganthi
    armoniacsal armoniac
    gomi arabicigomi arabicigommi arabicigomi arabici
    galbanigalbanigalbanigalbani
    assa phetidaassa phetidaassa phetidaassa phetidaasafoetida
    galangagalangegalangegalange
    girofle
    grana paradisigrana de paradisgrana de paradis
    pebre
    zinziberzinziberzinziber
    squinantisquinantisquinantisquinanti
    cubebescubebescubebescubebes
    aluminis plume
    acasiaacasiaacasiaacasia
    elebori nigrielebori nigri, elebori albielebori albi
    rhaponticumrhaponticumrhaponticum
    calami aromaticicalami aromaticicalami aromaticicalami aromatici
    semen cartamicarthamicartami
    succi liquiritiesucci liquiritieliquiritie
    semen catapuciecatapucie
    semen peonieradicis peoniesemen peoniesemen peonie
    semen citrisemen citrisemen citri
    semen papaverissemen papaveris niger, semen papaveris albisemen papaveris albi, semen papaveris nigerpapaveris
    semen daucisemen daucisemen daucidauci
    semen sileris montanissemen sileri montani
    semen portulasesemen portulase
    semen apiisemen apiisemen apiiapii
    polipodi quercinipolipodipolipodi quercinivici quercinipolipodi quercini
    grana tintorumgrana tintorum
    pulvis fenugrecifenugrecifenugreci
    emplastrum de melliloteemplastrum de mellilotemellilote
    violet conserveconserve violarum
    conserve buglosse
    conserve capilli veneriscapilli venerisconserve capilli veneriscapillorum veneris
    conserva nenupharisolei nenupharis
    conserva borraginisborraginis
    conserva scolopendriescolopendriescolopendria
    syrupus borraginis
    syrupus de radicibussyrupus de radicibus
    syrupus de agrestasyrup de agresta
    syrupus de lymonibuslymonibus
    dyamorondyamorondyamoron
    syrupus capillorum venerissyrupus capillorum veneris
    syrupus scolopendrie
    dya catholicon
    conserva rosarumconserve rosarum
    mellis violatimellis violati
    unguentum Agripaunguentum Agripaunguentum Agripaunguentum Agripa
    unguent fuscumunguent fuscum
    unguent ablum
    unguent epiptiacumunguent egiptiacumunguent egiptiacum
    dya galangadya galangepulvis dya galange
    dya dragacantidya dragacanthi
    aromaticum rosatumaromaticum rosatumaromaticum rosatum
    rosate novellerosate novelle
    aqua endivieaqua endivieendivie
    aqua sambuci
    aqua buglosseaqua buglosse
    aqua fumiterresyrupus de fumiterre
    aqua bursa pastorisbursa pastoris
    aqua apiiaqua apii
    aqua menthesyrupus de menthamenthe
    aqua acetozesemen acetoze
    aqua nucum
    aqua nenupharis
    olei rosatiolei rosati
    olei camomilleolei camomilleolei camomillecamomile
    umbilici marini
    lapis lazulilapis lazulilapis lazulilapis lazulilapis lazuli
    lapis lincis
    antimoniantimoniantimoniantimoni
    lapis cristali
    lapis granatorum
    alipta muscataalipta muscataalipta muscata
    trociscorum dya coralitrochiscorum dya corali
    trociscorum de caparibustrochiscorum de caparibus
    trociscorum squilicticorum
    gallie muscategallie muschategallie muschate
    pillule agregativepillule agregative
    pillule cocheepillule cochee
    pillule de rhabarbarotrochiscorum de rhabarbarotrochiscorum de rhabarbaro
    pillule aureepillule aureepillule auree
    pillule de hermodactillespillule de hermodactillespillule de hermodactilles
    pillule de fumoterrepillule de fumoterrepillule de fumoterre
    pillule de agaricopillule de agaricopillule de agaricopillule de agarico
    pillule elephanguiepillule elephanguiepillule elephanguiepillule elephanguie
    pulvis triphere magnetriphera magna
    pulvis dya ciminipulvis dya ciminipulvis dya cimini
    pulvis dya calamentidya calamentipulvis dya calamenticalamenti
    pulvis benedictebenedictecarde benedicte
    pulvis dya cucurmecucurme
    pulvis dya galange,
    pulvis requiespulvis requiespulvis requies
    pulvis rosate novelle
    rubee tintorumrubee tintorum
    aqua plantaginisplantaginis
    florum geneste
    absinthabsinthii
    eupatorioeupatorio
    syrupus de arthemisiasyrupus de arthemisia
    syrupus de absinthe
    syrupus de jujubissyrupus de jujubisjujubis
    syrupus de bizanthiissyrupus de bizanthiis
    oximellis simplicisoximellis simplicis
    olei violati
    olei de lilioolei liliolilio
    mellis rosati
    olei anetiolei aneti
    olei myrtillorum
    tartari
    olei mastiches
    olei de absintheolei de absinthe
    olei amigdalarum dulciun
    cerotum sandalinumcerotum sandalinum
    unguentum pomphiligosunguentum pomphiligos
    unguentum apostolorum
    unguentum baziliconunguentum bazilicon
    unguentum Aragonunguentum Aragonunguentum aragon
    unguentum albi Galieni
    oxicroceum
    betonicabetonica
    emplastrum de bacis lauriemplastrum de bacis lauri
    violarumviolarumviolarum
    cichoriicichorii
    tamarins
    dya prunisdya prunia laxative
    indi maiorisindi maioris
    pillule de hyera simplicispillule de hyera
    pillule de castoreopillule de castoreocastoreo
    pillule stomatice
    trochiscorum alkekangi
    trochiscorum de spodiotrochiscorum de spodiotrochiscorum de spodiospodio
    trochiscorum de tiro
    carabe
    trochiscorum dya rodontrochiscorum dya rodon
    trochiscorum de terra sigilata
    trochiscorum de myrra
    succi absinthii
    trochiscorum alhandaltrociscorum alhandal
    ciminicimini
    rosarumrosarum
    hermodactillorumhermodactillorumhermodactillorum
    pillule de euphorbio
    vitriolvitrioli albivitriol
    opium tebaicumopium tebaicumopium
    trya sandalipulvis tria sandalipulvis tria sandali
    de succo rosarumde succo rosarumsucco
    succre candi
    dragacanti pillules
    radicis aristologie rotonde, aristologie longeradicis aristologie rotonderadicis aristologie rotonde, aristologie longe
    cipericiperi
    mandragoremandragore
    acoriacori
    ben albiben albi, ben rubert
    ditamiditami
    piretripiretri
    costicosti dulcis
    porcinispanis porcinis
    semen ruyte
    cornu servi
    semen anetisemen aneti
    semen saxifragie
    syrupus de papaveresyrupus de papavere
    corticis citri
    semen altheealthea
    semen sumacsemen sumacsumac
    semen speragi
    semen scariolesemen scariole
    mytrillorum
    staphisagriesemen staphisagrie
    semen feniculisemen feniculifeniculi
    seminorum frigidorum maiorummaiorum
    myrremyrremyrre
    gommi edere
    opopopanacisopopopanacisopopopanacis
    plumbi usti
    storacis calamitestoracis calamite
    macismacismacis
    turbithturbithturbithturbith
    carpo balsamumcarpo balsamum
    spice nardispice nardispice nardi
    spice celticespice celtice
    spodii
    ligni balsami
    syrupus de liquirtiasyrupus de liquiritia
    amigdon
    rasure eborisrasure eborisrasure eboris
    sandali rubei, sandali albisandali rubei, sandali albisandali
    ypoquistidosypoquistidosypoquistidos
    cere albecere
    bacarum lauri
    mielmiel
    boli armeniaboli armenia
    semen linisemen linilini
    codognat
    prunos
    scamoneascamoneascamoneascamonea
    margaritarumdya margaritonismargaritarum
    coriandrescoriandres
    spices
    semen berberissemen berberisberberis
    cassiecassie cum mellecassie
    mastichesmasticmastiches
    storacis liquide
    nenupharis
    buglossebuglosse
    aqua rosarumaqua peculi rosarum
    syrupus violatussyrupus violatus
    pillule sine quibus
    pillule lucis maiorespillule lucis maiores
    trociscorum de agarico
    lapis rubinorum
    aloes cicotrin
    foli indi
    momyemomye
    orpimentorpiment
    gommi elempni
    consolide maioris radix
    semen petro Macedonici
    semen carvi
    semen malve
    manus christi
    pulvis leticie Galieni
    electuari trya sandali
    pulvis dya nizon
    pulvis liton triponpulvis liton tripon
    pulvis dya papaveris
    trociscorum album rasis
    pillule phetide maiores
    pillule ruffi
    confectio alchermes
    confectionis hamec
    triphera persicapersica
    hyera picra
    conserve anthos
    conserve salviesalvie
    conserve florum cichorii
    conserve simphiti
    syrupus rosatus laxativus
    syrupus endivie
    mellis anthosati
    unguentum martiatum
    unguentum aureum
    hyssopus humida
    emplastrum pro stomaco
    emplastrum oxicroceum
    cere cum cymine
    tuthie
    anis confitanis
    gentianegentiane
    coperose
    sandaracesandarace
    sagapenum
    salis geme
    axungie hyrcis
    yridis florentie
    coraline
    corticis caparis
    cinabrion
    verdet
    semenis juniperijuniperi
    peonie
    machicot
    coton pres
    lactuce
    thimo
    serapine
    aes
    lapis smaragdorum
    tormentille
    rhute
    cuscute
    mostardo
    argent vif
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History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals: 66 (2)
History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals
Vol. 66, Issue 2
1 May 2025
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The Puzzle of Distribution
Emma Tomlins
History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals May 2025, 66 (2) 134-179; DOI: 10.3368/hopp.66.2.134

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Emma Tomlins
History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals May 2025, 66 (2) 134-179; DOI: 10.3368/hopp.66.2.134
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  • Article
    • Abstract
    • The Puzzle of Distribution
    • The World in a Shop
    • The Anatomy of a Functional Inventory
    • The Challenge of Origins
    • Providing a Control
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    • Globality of Use and Globality of Origin
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Keywords

  • materia medica
  • apothecary inventories
  • pharmacopeias
  • early modern France
  • globalization
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